How Computers Work: From Binary Switches to CPUs, Memory, and Processes

Computers operate using only two states — on and off — represented as 1s and 0s, known as binary digits or bits. Groups of eight bits form a byte, which can encode letters, numbers, and images using agreed standards like ASCII. A CPU processes instructions in a continuous three-step cycle of fetch, decode, and execute, performing these operations billions of times per second. Computers use two types of memory: RAM for fast, temporary active work and ROM for slower, permanent storage, ensuring efficiency by loading only needed data at a time. RAM itself is organized into a stack for small, short-lived data and a heap for larger, flexible data, while the CPU runs separate isolated processes for each application, subdivided into threads for parallel tasks.